1
[1] Yan, J., Wang, C., & Sun, B. (2025). Global, regional, and national burdens of traumatic brain injury from 1990 to 2021. Frontiers in public health, 13, 1556147.
2
[2] Zhong, H., Feng, Y., Shen, J., Rao, T., Dai, H., Zhong, W., & Zhao, G. (2025). Global burden of traumatic brain injury in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2021. American journal of preventive medicine.
3
[3] Orr, T. J., Emal Lesha, Kramer, A. H., Arba Cecia, Dugan, J. E., Schwartz, B., & Einhaus, S. L. (2024). Traumatic brain injury: a comprehensive review of biomechanics and molecular pathophysiology. World Neurosurg., 185–185.
4
[4] Ng, S. Y., & Lee, A. Y. W. (2019). Traumatic brain injuries: pathophysiology and potential therapeutic targets. Front Cell Neurosci. Frontiers Media S.A.
5
[5] Freire, M. A. M., Rocha, G. S., Bittencourt, L. O., Falcao, D., Lima, R. R., & Cavalcanti, J. R. L. P. (2023, August 1). Cellular and Molecular Pathophysiology of Traumatic Brain Injury: What Have We Learned So Far? Biology. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI).
6
[6] Yan, A., Torpey, A., Morrisroe, E., Andraous, W., Costa, A., & Bergese, S. (2024). Clinical Management in Traumatic Brain Injury. Biomedicines, 12(4), 781.
7
[7] Weber, J. T. (2012). Altered calcium signaling following traumatic brain injury. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 3 APR.
8
[8] Metwally, E., Zhao, G., Wang, Q., & Zhang, Y. Q. (2021). Ttm50 facilitates calpain activation by anchoring it to calcium stores and increasing its sensitivity to calcium. Cell Research, 31(4), 433–449.
9
[9] Basilio, A. V., Zeng, D., Pichay, L. A., Ateshian, G. A., Xu, P., Maas, S. A., & Morrison, B. (2024). Simulating Cerebral Edema and Ischemia After Traumatic Acute Subdural Hematoma Using Triphasic Swelling Biomechanics. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 52(10), 2818–2830.
10
[10] Huang, Y. K., Lin, C. K., Wang, C. C., Kuo, J. R., Lai, C. F., Chen, C. W., & Lin, B. S. (2021). A novel wireless optical technique for quantitative evaluation of cerebral perfusion pressure in a fluid percussion animal model of traumatic brain injury. Quantitative Imaging in Medicine and Surgery, 11(6), 2388–2396.
11
[11] Sabet, N., Soltani, Z., & Khaksari, M. (2021, August 15). Multipotential and systemic effects of traumatic brain injury. J Neuroimmunol. Elsevier B.V.
12
[12] El Baassiri, M. G., Raouf, Z., Badin, S., Escobosa, A., Sodhi, C. P., & Nasr, I. W. (2024). Dysregulated brain-gut axis in the setting of traumatic brain injury: review of mechanisms and anti-inflammatory pharmacotherapies. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 21(1), 124.
13
[13] Zhou, Y., Lu, W., & Tang, W. (2021). Gastrointestinal failure score in children with traumatic brain injury. BMC Pediatrics, 21(1), 219.
14
[14] McGraw, C., Briscoe, A., Reynolds, C., Carrick, M., Palacio, C. H., Waswick, W., … Bar-Or, D. (2024). Outcomes of patients with traumatic brain injury after stress ulcer prophylaxis: a retrospective multicenter study. Trauma Surgery and Acute Care Open, 9(1).
15
[15] Mahmoodkhani, M., Naeimi, A., Zohrehvand, A., Sabouri, M., & Heidari, M. (2024). Gastrointestinal bleeding following traumatic brain injury: A clinical study on predisposing factors and outcomes. Caspian Journal of Internal Medicine, 15(4), 673–681.
16
[16] Lin, Y., Hou, C., Wang, C., Chen, R., Zhu, Y., Zhou, Q., … Li, S. (2024). Research progress on digestive disorders following traumatic brain injury. Frontiers in Immunology. Frontiers Media SA.
17
[17] Ghaemi, M., & Kheradmand, D. (2025). The gut-brain axis in traumatic brain Injury: Literature review. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 136, 111258.
18
[18] Cáceres, E., Olivella, J. C., Di Napoli, M., Raihane, A. S., & Divani, A. A. (2024). Immune Response in Traumatic Brain Injury. Current neurology and neuroscience reports, 24(12), 593–609.
19
[19] Xiong, Y., Mahmood, A., & Chopp, M. (2018, June 1). Current understanding of neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury and cell-based therapeutic opportunities. Chinese Journal of Traumatology - English Edition. Elsevier B.V.
20
[20] Cannon, A. R., Anderson, L. J., Galicia, K., Murray, M. G., Kamran, A. S., Li, X., … Choudhry, M. A. (2023). Traumatic brain injury-induced inflammation and gastrointestinal motility dysfunction. Shock, 59(4), 621–626.
21
[21] Taheri, S., Karaca, Z., Mehmetbeyoglu, E., Hamurcu, Z., Yilmaz, Z., Dal, F., … Kelestimur, F. (2022). The role of apoptosis and autophagy in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Int J Mol Sci, 23(24).
22
[22] Ayerra, L., Shumilov, K., Ni, A., Aymerich, M. S., Friess, S. H., & Celorrio, M. (2025). Chronic traumatic brain injury induces neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, and cognitive deficits in a T cell-dependent manner. Brain Research, 1850, 149446.
23
[23] Sharma, R., Kambhampati, S. P., Zhang, Z., Sharma, A., Chen, S., Duh, E. I., … Kannan, R. M. (2020). Dendrimer mediated targeted delivery of sinomenine for the treatment of acute neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury. Journal of Controlled Release, 323, 361–375.
24
[24] Sayavedra, L., Yasir, M., Goldson, A., Brion, A., Le Gall, G., Moreno-Gonzalez, M., … Narbad, A. (2025). Bacterial microcompartments and energy metabolism drive gut colonization by Bilophila wadsworthia. Nature Communications, 16(1), 5049.
25
[25] Deng, S., Pei, C., Cai, K., Huang, W., Xiao, X., Zhang, X., … Liao, Q. (2024). Lactobacillus acidophilus and its metabolite ursodeoxycholic acid ameliorate ulcerative colitis by promoting Treg differentiation and inhibiting M1 macrophage polarization. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15
26
[26] Zhang, J., Zhang, C., Yu, L., Tian, F., Chen, W., & Zhai, Q. (2024). Analysis of the key genes of Lactobacillus reuteri strains involved in the protection against alcohol-induced intestinal barrier damage. Food & Function, 15(12), 6629–6641.
27
[27] Yao, Y., Zhang, Y., Song, M., Fan, J., Feng, S., Li, J., … Liu, X. (2024). Lactobacillus alleviates intestinal epithelial barrier function through GPR43-mediated M2 macrophage polarization. Animal Diseases, 4(1), 20.
28
[28] DeSana, A. J., Estus, S., Barrett, T. A., & Saatman, K. E. (2024). Acute gastrointestinal permeability after traumatic brain injury in mice precedes a bloom in Akkermansia muciniphila supported by intestinal hypoxia. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 2990.
29
[29] You, W., Zhu, Y., Wei, A., Du, J., Wang, Y., Zheng, P., … Yang, X. (2022). Traumatic Brain Injury Induces Gastrointestinal Dysfunction and Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota Accompanied by Alterations of Bile Acid Profile. Journal of Neurotrauma, 39(1–2), 227–237.
30
[30] Geller, S., Umarnazarova, Z., Azimova, N., Usmonova, K., & Kamilova, A. (2025). Markers of enterocyte damage in celiac disease in children: is there an association with the clinical manifestations of the disease? Frontiers in Pediatrics, 13.
31
[31] Huang, Q., Wu, Z., Zhang, Y., Wu, Y., Shi, C., & Liu, Y. (2023). Obesity Exacerbates Acute Gastrointestinal Injury and Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction in Early-Stage Acute Pancreatitis. The Turkish Journal of Gastroenterology, 34(4), 421–426.
32
[32] Pagkou, D., Kogias, E., Foroglou, N., & Kotzampassi, K. (2024). Probiotics in Traumatic Brain Injury: New Insights into Mechanisms and Future Perspectives. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(15), 4546.
33
[33] Gao, L., Zhang, M., & Zhou, X. (2020). The effect of early enteral nutrition combined with anti-infection intervention on gut bacteria translocation-related infections in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 13(7), 5130–5137.
34
[34] Issangya, C. E., Msuya, D., Chilonga, K., Herman, A., Shao, E., Shirima, F., … Chugulu, S. (2020). Perioperative serum albumin as a predictor of adverse outcomes in abdominal surgery: prospective cohort hospital based study in Northern Tanzania. BMC Surgery, 20(1), 155.
35
[35] Galata, C., Busse, L., Birgin, E., Weiß, C., Hardt, J., Reißfelder, C., & Otto, M. (2020). Role of Albumin as a Nutritional and Prognostic Marker in Elective Intestinal Surgery. Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 2020, 1–8.
36
[36] Aksan, A., Wohlrath, M., Iqbal, T. H., Dignass, A., & Stein, J. (2020). Inflammation, but Not the Underlying Disease or Its Location, Predicts Oral Iron Absorption Capacity in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Journal of Crohn’s and Colitis, 14(3), 316–322.
37
[37] Chen, J., Li, Z., Wang, X., Fan, B., Deng, F., D.Yu, H., … Wang, X. (2022). Isomaltooligosaccharides Sustain the Growth of Prevotella Both In Vitro and in Animal Models. Microbiology Spectrum, 10(6).
38
[38] Shin, J. H., Tillotson, G., MacKenzie, T. N., Warren, C. A., Wexler, H. M., & Goldstein, E. J. C. (2024). Bacteroides and related species: The keystone taxa of the human gut microbiota. Anaerobe, 85, 102819.
39
[39] Bragazzi, M. C., Pianigiani, F., Venere, R., & Ridola, L. (2024). Dysbiosis in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Spondyloarthritis: Still a Long Way to Go? Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(8), 2237.
40
[40] Martínez de Victoria Carazo, J., Vinuesa García, D., Serrano-Conde Sánchez, E., Peregrina Rivas, J. A., Ruíz Rodríguez, A. J., & Hernández Quero, J. (2023). Ruminococcus gnavus bacteremia: Literature review and a case report associated with acute flare of ulcerative colitis in an immunocompromised patient. Anaerobe, 82, 102762.
41
[41] Wu, Y., Wu, Y., Wu, H., Wu, C., Ji, E., Xu, J., … Yang, H. (2021). Systematic Survey of the Alteration of the Faecal Microbiota in Rats With Gastrointestinal Disorder and Modulation by Multicomponent Drugs. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12.
42
[42] Rastogi, S., & Singh, A. (2022). Gut microbiome and human health: Exploring how the probiotic genus Lactobacillus modulate immune responses. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13.
43
[43] Sun, Y., Zhang, S., Nie, Q., He, H., Tan, H., Geng, F., … Nie, S. (2023). Gut firmicutes: Relationship with dietary fiber and role in host homeostasis. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(33), 12073–12088.
44
[44] Tien, N. T. N., Choi, E. J., Thu, N. Q., Yu, S. J., Nguyen, D. N., Kim, D. H., … Lee, H. S. (2025). An exploratory multi-omics study reveals distinct molecular signatures of ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease and their correlation with disease activity. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 255, 116652.
45
[45] Chen, D.-Q., Zhang, H.-J., Zhang, W., Feng, K., Liu, H., Zhao, H.-L., & Li, P. (2024). Tangshen Formula alleviates inflammatory injury against aged diabetic kidney disease through modulating gut microbiota composition and related amino acid metabolism. Experimental Gerontology, 188, 112393.
46
[46] Kang, N., Fan, Z., Yang, L., Shen, J., Shen, Y., Fang, Z., … Wang, J. (2025). Camel Milk Protein Ameliorates Ulcerative Colitis by Modulating Gut Microbiota and Amino Acid Metabolism. Nutrients, 17(5), 780.
47
[47] Garry, P. S., Ezra, M., Rowland, M. J., Westbrook, J., & Pattinson, K. T. S. (2015). The role of the nitric oxide pathway in brain injury and its treatment - From bench to bedside. Experimental Neurology. Academic Press Inc.
48
[48] Hsieh, J. S., Howng, S. L., Huang, T. J., Wang, J. Y., & Chen, F. M. (2006). Endothelin-1, inducible nitric oxide synthase and macrophage inflammatory protein-1α in the pathogenesis of stress ulcer in neurotraumatic patients. Journal of Trauma - Injury, Infection and Critical Care, 61(4), 873–878.
49
[49] Pourbagher-Shahri, A. M., Farkhondeh, T., Talebi, M., Kopustinskiene, D. M., Samarghandian, S., & Bernatoniene, J. (2021). An overview of no signaling pathways in aging. Molecules, 26(15).
50
[50] Papi, S., Ahmadizar, F., & Hasanvand, A. (2019). The role of nitric oxide in inflammation and oxidative stress. Immunopathologia Persa. Nickan Research Institute.
51
[51] Chen, T. (2024). Unveiling the significance of inducible nitric oxide synthase: Its impact on cancer progression and clinical implications. Cancer Letters, 592, 216931.
52
[52] Farahani, A., Farahani, A., Kashfi, K., & Ghasemi, A. (2025). Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS): More than an inducible enzyme? Rethinking the classification of NOS isoforms. Pharmacological Research, 216, 107781.
53
[53] Mahmoud-Awny, M., Attia, A. S., Abd-Ellah, M. F., & El-Abhar, H. S. (2015). Mangiferin mitigates gastric ulcer in ischemia/reperfused rats: Involvement of PPAR-γ, NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling Pathways. PLoS ONE, 10(7).
54
[54] Akmal, M. N., Abdel Aziz, I., & Nur Azlina, M. F. (2023). Piper sarmentosum Roxb. methanolic extract prevents stress-induced gastric ulcer by modulating oxidative stress and inflammation. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13.
55
[55] Xu, J., Wang, B., & Ao, H. (2025). Corticosterone effects induced by stress and immunity and inflammation: mechanisms of communication. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 16.
56
[56] Katsu, Y., & Baker, M. E. (2021). Cortisol. In Handbook of Hormones (pp. 947–949). Elsevier.
57
[57] Kageyama, K., Iwasaki, Y., & Daimon, M. (2021, November 1). Hypothalamic regulation of corticotropin-releasing factor under stress and stress resilience. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. MDPI.
58
[58] Çayakar, A. (2021). Steroid usage in clinical practice. Ulusal Romatoloji Dergisi, 13(2), 73–84.
59
[59] Marshall, W. A., Adams, L. M., & Weaver, J. L. (2022, October 1). The brain–gut axis in traumatic brain injury: implications for nutrition support. Curr Surg Rep. Springer.
60
[60] Purkayastha, S., Stokes, M., & Bell, K. R. (2019, July 29). Autonomic nervous system dysfunction in mild traumatic brain injury: a review of related pathophysiology and symptoms. Brain Injury. Taylor and Francis Ltd.
61
[61] Filaretova, L., Komkova, O., Sudalina, M., & Yarushkina, N. (2021). Non-Invasive Remote Ischemic Preconditioning May Protect the Gastric Mucosa Against Ischemia-Reperfusion-Induced Injury Through Involvement of Glucocorticoids. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 12.
62
[62] Wang, J., Yu, K., & Zeng, Y. (2023). Early enteral nutrition intervention promotes multiple functional recovery in patients with traumatic intracerebral hemorrhage: A prospective randomized controlled study. Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery, 234, 108010.
63
[63] Peng, C., Li, J., Miao, Z., Wang, Y., Wu, S., Wang, Y., … Shen, X. (2022). Early life administration of Bifidobacterium bifidum BD-1 alleviates long-term colitis by remodeling the gut microbiota and promoting intestinal barrier development. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13.
64
[64] Chen, X., Chai, Y., Wang, S.-B., Wang, J.-C., Yue, S.-Y., Jiang, R.-C., & Zhang, J.-N. (2020). Risk factors for corticosteroid insufficiency during the sub-acute phase of acute traumatic brain injury. Neural Regeneration Research, 15(7), 1259.
65
[65] Zhu, C., Zhang, Y., Li, W., & Li, Q. (2021). Clinical observation of individualized nutritional formula on inflammation index, immune status and gastrointestinal tolerance in patients with severe head injury. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 37(4).
66
[66] Urban, R. J., Pyles, R. B., Stewart, C. J., Ajami, N., Randolph, K. M., Durham, W. J., … Sheffield-Moore, M. (2020). Altered Fecal Microbiome Years after Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 37(8), 1037–1051.
67
[67] Biteghe-Bi-Nzeng, A.-P., Wei, H., Chen, X., & Zhang, J. (2010). Evaluation of stress hormones in traumatic brain injury patients with gastrointestinal bleeding. Chinese Journal of Traumatology, 13(1), 25–31.
